Values

Values #

Monday, March 30, 2020 — 11:19 AM

Science and Values #

Scientism: science produces objective, value-free knowledge.

Challenged by: epistemic relativism, scientific realism/anti-realism

Ways values could influence science:

• choosing what to research
• how we gather evidence (cherry picking, etc.)
• how we come to conclusions/theories
• how we disseminate (share) our knowledge
• beneficial — values help us decide what is valuable knowledge to society
• challenges scientism — suggests science is influenced by values

Value-free ideal: scientists should minimize the influence of values on these two contention points

Kuhn’s Criteria of Theory Choice #

1. Accuracy — empirical adequacy ← many theories could be “accurate” so we need more to determine which is best
2. Consistency — internal (does not contradict itself) + external (consistent w/ other research/theories)
3. Broad Scope — has implications in more general applications
4. Simplicity — unifying many disparate phenomena; brings order to isolated observation
5. Fruitfulness — leads to new questions/areas of research

What is the status of these criteria? #

• indicative of truth? (IBE) ← refuted by Hume’s Problem
• or simply values that we favor in our theories? ← Kuhn’s Argument
  • ex. “simplicity” is subjective; one theory can be simpler in one respect but complex in another
    • no unique determination of an objectively superior model

The Value of Values #

Kuhn:

• there are criteria for theories.
• these criteria are values.
• doesn’t this conflict with the value free ideal?

Answer: No

• it is a good thing that theories are value-based.
  • helps communities improve their theories and favor theories with independent agreement
• influence of values doesn’t make theories subjective.
  • disagreement is essential to the flourishing of science.
  • as long as all scientists agree to use the same overall values, theories remain comparable and objective. (cognitive values)

The Modified Value Free Ideal: #

Scientists should minimize non-cognitive influence.

What’s the difference between cognitive and non-cognitive values? How do we decide what are cognitive values? #

• Cognitive values are different from political values

Longino’s Criteria — Kuhn’s are actually political #

1. empirical adequacy = accuracy
2. novelty — differs significantly from current theories ← opposite of consistency
3. ontological heterogeneity → entities a theory addresses, many different kinds ← contrasts w/ simplicity
4. complexity of relationship — causes may not be unified under a single cause ← contrasts w/ broad scope
5. applicability to current human needs — theories should be practical — only concerns theory choice
6. diffusion of power — encourage projects investigatable without hard-to-get equipment

Longino’s Argument #

Longino’s criteria are less politically motivated than Kuhn’s argument

• Consistency favors old models over new, opposing evidence even if they are incorrect
• Simplicity in economics would favor studying those in power/wealth, ignoring others

However, it is impossible to create politically neutral criteria

• “What values do we want?” is a politically motivated question

Argument Map: External consistency is laden with socio-political values #

• 1A-a: External consistency perpetuates gender oppression.
• 1A-b (support): Gender oppression is a socio-political value.
  • 2A-a: External consistency has been used to favor theories of craniometry which imply that men are biologically determined to be more intelligent than women.
  • 2A-b (support): This implication perpetuates gender oppression.
    • 3A-a: It used to be widely accepted men are biologically determined to be more intelligent than women.
    • 3A-b (support): Theories of craniometry that were otherwise unpromising were pursued in virtue of their consistency with this widely accepted dogma.
  • 2B-a: External consistency has been used to favor theories of fertilization which support traditional gender stereotypes.
  • 2B-b (support): Gender stereotypes perpetuate gender oppression.
    • 3B-a: The old model of fertilization is consistent with traditional views of gender stereotypes.
    • 3B-b (support): The old model was still accepted even after much evidence against it was known.